Question: How did historical rape laws contribute to the concept of victim blaming?...

1. How did historical rape laws contribute to the concept of victim blaming? How does this still show up in present-day investigations and prosecutions (consider judge/jury perceptions' of credibility, etc.).

2. After reading An Unbelievable Story of Rape and The Victim Who Became the Accused, discuss what rape myths were present in these cases?

3. How can the criminal justice field do better to ensure professionals are equipped to recognize and respond in cases that don't fit society's narrative of what sexual assault victims "should" look/act like?

DRAFT/STUDY TIPS:

Historical Rape Laws and the Concept of Victim Blaming: Origins and Contemporary Manifestations

Introduction
The evolution of rape laws reflects a complex interplay of societal attitudes, legal interpretations, and cultural norms. Historically, these laws have often contributed to the pervasive concept of victim blaming, wherein the victim of a crime, particularly rape, is held wholly or partially responsible for the harm that befell them. This essay examines how historical rape laws have fostered a culture of victim blaming and how these attitudes persist in contemporary investigations and prosecutions. Furthermore, it will analyze specific cases, such as those presented in "An Unbelievable Story of Rape" and "The Victim Who Became the Accused," to identify the presence of rape myths and propose strategies for the criminal justice field to better support victims of sexual assault.

Historical Contributions to Victim Blaming in Rape Laws

Historical rape laws have significantly contributed to the culture of victim blaming through legal definitions, evidentiary requirements, and societal norms that prioritized the protection of male honor and property over female autonomy and consent.

Legal Definitions and Societal Norms
In medieval and early modern Europe, rape was often viewed not as a crime against the woman, but as a crime against her husband or father, reflecting the patriarchal view that women were property. The legal focus was less on the act of violence against the woman and more on the damage to male property and honor (Brownmiller, 1975). For instance, a woman's sexual history was scrutinized to determine her credibility and purity, thereby shifting focus from the perpetrator's actions to the victim's character (Schulhofer, 1998).

Evidentiary Requirements
The requirement of corroboration was another way historical rape laws fostered victim blaming. Women had to provide multiple witnesses to the rape, an almost impossible standard in most cases of sexual assault. This legal standard reflected deep-seated mistrust of women’s testimonies, reinforcing the notion that women were likely to lie about being raped (Estrich, 1987). Additionally, the 'hue and cry' requirement, which demanded that a woman immediately report the rape and demonstrate visible resistance, placed an unrealistic burden on victims to behave in a particular manner, failing which their allegations were doubted (MacKinnon, 1989).

Marital Rape Exemption
Another significant contributor to victim blaming was the marital rape exemption. Historically, the law did not recognize rape within marriage, operating under the belief that marriage implied perpetual consent. This notion was rooted in the idea that a wife was the property of her husband and thus could not refuse him sex (Russell, 1990). The legal non-recognition of marital rape not only perpetuated the objectification of women but also invalidated the experiences of countless victims.

These legal precedents established a framework where the burden of proof and the onus of blame shifted disproportionately onto the victim, laying the groundwork for a culture of victim blaming that has persisted into modern legal practices.

Contemporary Manifestations in Investigations and Prosecutions

Despite reforms, contemporary investigations and prosecutions still exhibit remnants of historical victim blaming through judge and jury perceptions, as well as societal biases regarding credibility and behavior.

Perceptions of Credibility
Judges and juries often carry implicit biases that affect their perception of a rape victim's credibility. Studies have shown that jurors are more likely to doubt the testimonies of victims who do not conform to stereotypical behaviors associated with trauma, such as immediate reporting or displaying visible distress (Temkin & Krahe, 2008). This skepticism is rooted in rape myths, such as the belief that 'real' victims fight back and report immediately, failing which their credibility is questioned (Burt, 1980).

Gendered Expectations and Trauma Responses
Victims who do not exhibit expected emotional responses, or who maintain contact with their assailant after the assault, often face scrutiny and disbelief. The psychological impacts of trauma, including dissociation and attempts to normalize relationships with the perpetrator, are frequently misunderstood by those without specialized training in trauma-informed care (Campbell, 2006). This misunderstanding leads to a misinterpretation of victim behavior as deceitful or unreliable.

Prosecutorial Discretion and Case Attrition
Prosecutors may also exhibit bias in their decision-making, often choosing not to pursue cases they believe will be difficult to win due to perceived issues with the victim's credibility or behavior. This selective prosecution perpetuates a cycle where only 'ideal' victims receive justice, reinforcing harmful stereotypes and discouraging many survivors from reporting (Spohn & Tellis, 2012).

These contemporary manifestations of victim blaming in legal processes underscore the enduring influence of historical rape laws and the necessity for ongoing reforms to address implicit biases and ensure fair treatment for all victims of sexual assault.

Rape Myths in "An Unbelievable Story of Rape" and "The Victim Who Became the Accused"
The cases discussed in "An Unbelievable Story of Rape" and "The Victim Who Became the Accused" highlight the prevalence of rape myths and their detrimental effects on the pursuit of justice for sexual assault survivors.

Rape Myths in "An Unbelievable Story of Rape"
In "An Unbelievable Story of Rape," the victim, Marie, faced significant disbelief from law enforcement officials and her community. The primary myth at play was the notion that victims should exhibit certain behaviors to be believed. Marie’s calm demeanor and inconsistencies in her account were interpreted as signs of fabrication rather than typical responses to trauma (Miller & Armstrong, 2015). This case illustrates how societal expectations about how a victim should behave can lead to the wrongful dismissal of legitimate reports.

Rape Myths in "The Victim Who Became the Accused"
"The Victim Who Became the Accused" similarly demonstrates the impact of rape myths. The victim's character and actions were scrutinized more than the actions of the accused. She was accused of lying due to minor discrepancies in her story and her lack of immediate, visible emotional distress, which are common reactions in cases of trauma (MacKinnon, 2016). This reflects the myth that a genuine victim must behave in a consistently distressed and coherent manner immediately following the assault.
These cases exemplify how rape myths continue to influence perceptions of credibility and justice, highlighting the urgent need for systemic changes to better support survivors and challenge these harmful stereotypes.

Strategies for Improvement in the Criminal Justice System

To better support victims and dismantle entrenched rape myths, the criminal justice field must adopt comprehensive reforms focused on education, policy changes, and trauma-informed practices.

Education and Training
Comprehensive education and training for law enforcement, prosecutors, and judges are essential to challenge and change ingrained biases. Training programs should focus on understanding the psychological impacts of trauma and recognizing a wide range of victim behaviors as legitimate (Campbell, 2008). Educating professionals about the neurobiological effects of trauma can help them understand why victims may not report immediately or may have fragmented memories.

Policy Reforms
Policy reforms should aim to reduce the emphasis on victim behavior and focus on the actions of the perpetrator. For example, eliminating the requirement for corroboration and immediate reporting can help shift the burden away from victims. Additionally, implementing policies that encourage the use of forensic and medical evidence over character assessments can improve the fairness of investigations and prosecutions (Lisak et al., 2010).

Support Services and Advocacy
Providing robust support services for victims, including legal advocacy, counseling, and medical care, can help survivors navigate the criminal justice system and reduce the retraumatization often associated with reporting and testifying. Advocates can play a critical role in supporting victims and ensuring their voices are heard and respected throughout the legal process (Herman, 2003).

Trauma-Informed Practices
Adopting trauma-informed practices across all levels of the criminal justice system can lead to more sensitive and effective responses to sexual assault cases. This includes creating environments where victims feel safe and supported when reporting crimes and during subsequent legal proceedings. Trauma-informed care acknowledges the complex emotional and psychological responses to trauma and seeks to minimize additional harm (Hopper & Hidalgo, 2006).
By focusing on education, policy reforms, support services, and trauma-informed practices, the criminal justice field can better recognize and respond to the diverse experiences of sexual assault victims, challenging rape myths and fostering a more just and equitable system.

Conclusion
The historical roots of rape laws have ingrained a culture of victim blaming that continues to affect contemporary legal practices. The persistence of rape myths and biased perceptions of victim credibility highlight the need for comprehensive reforms in the criminal justice system. By adopting trauma-informed practices, providing extensive education and training, and implementing supportive policies, we can work towards a more just and empathetic approach to handling sexual assault cases, ensuring that all victims are treated with the respect and fairness they deserve. The cases of Marie and other victims who faced undue scrutiny underscore the importance of these changes and the urgent need to challenge and dismantle harmful stereotypes that hinder justice for sexual assault survivors.