Question: How ‘Roman’ were the ‘barbarian kingdoms’ of the sixth and seventh centuries? Answer must consider at least three kingdoms or regions

The barbarian kingdoms were not particularly Roman in terms of their culture or political institutions. However, they did eventually come to adopt many aspects of Roman civilization, including Christianity. In terms of their relations with the imperial government in Constantinople, the barbarian kingdoms could be quite complex and variable – at times they were cooperative allies, while at other times they posed a serious threat to Constantinople's hegemony in the Mediterranean.

The sixth century was a period of great crisis for the Roman Empire. In the west, the empire was under attack from barbarian tribes such as the Franks and the Visigoths, while in the east, a resurgent Persian Empire was threatening Constantinople's eastern provinces. In this context, the barbarian kingdoms that had arisen in the former western provinces of the Roman Empire served as both a buffer against further barbarian incursions and as a potential source of manpower and resources for Constantinople.

The most important of these barbarian kingdoms were the Goths, who had established themselves in Italy; the Vandals, who controlled North Africa; and the Lombards, who ruled much of Italy. These kingdoms were not particularly Roman in terms of their culture or political institutions. However, they did eventually come to adopt many aspects of Roman civilization, including Christianity.

In terms of their relations with the imperial government in Constantinople, the barbarian kingdoms could be quite complex and variable – at times they were cooperative allies.................